What Is CRUD? Create, Read, Update, and Delete

Have you ever thought about how websites are so dynamic? Where does the data come from? How is it displayed instantly on your screen? How do they allow you to edit and delete information with one click? The questions are many, but the answer is CRUD (Create, Read, Update, and Delete) operations.

CRUD is a standardized system that defines how applications will use data stored in a database. Think of it as a roadmap that tells how data flows through systems from input to storage, editing, retrieving and deleting. These operations are important for the successful daily management of data.

Do you know how it works? No Problem! I have created this blog to explain what CRUD operations are, their application to different technologies, common mistakes, etc. Let's begin with the definition!

What are CRUD Operations?

CRUD operations are the four basic functions of persistent storage in computer programming and database management. They represent the essential methods for handling data in both relational (SQL) and non-relational (NoSQL) databases. They allow users to add new records, retrieve data, update existing records and delete information.

Why Are CRUD Operations Important?

Understanding its importance will help you know how modern software stays functional, scalable, and reliable. Here are five reasons why they matter:

1. Core Framework for Data Handling

These four operations provide a structured approach to managing information in databases. By defining clear actions for adding, retrieving, modifying, and removing data, they create consistency across systems and development practices.

2. Power Dynamic and Interactive Applications

User-driven platforms depend on continuous data interaction. Whether someone is registering an account, editing a profile, viewing content, or deleting records, these operations make real-time functionality possible.

3. Essential for Business Workflows

From managing inventory in e-commerce to processing transactions in financial systems, these database actions support daily business activities. They ensure that records remain accurate and operations run smoothly.

4. Maintain Data Accuracy and Integrity

The ability to update incorrect entries and remove outdated information helps maintain clean and reliable databases. This directly improves reporting accuracy, decision-making, and overall system performance.

5. Foundation of Backend and API Development

Most backend frameworks and RESTful APIs are built around these four actions. HTTP methods like POST, GET, PUT/PATCH, and DELETE are commonly mapped to CRUD operations in REST APIs. This is also why they are fundamental to modern web development.

CRUD Operations in Database Systems

Database operations are used to manage data efficiently by performing create, read, update, and delete actions that ensure accurate storage, retrieval, modification, and removal of information within an application across various systems. Let me explain this to you with the following example: Employee Management System

Create a Database Table (SQL):

CREATE DATABASE company_db;

USE company_db;

CREATE TABLE employees (
    id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT,
    name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,
    email VARCHAR(150) UNIQUE NOT NULL,
    department VARCHAR(100),
    salary DECIMAL(10,2),
    created_at TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
);

This table will store employee records.

1. CREATE Operation (Insert Data)

SQL Query

INSERT INTO employees (name, email, department, salary)
VALUES ('Rahul Sharma', 'rahul@company.com', 'IT', 60000.00);

Python (Flask) Example

from flask import Flask, request
import mysql.connector

app = Flask(__name__)

db = mysql.connector.connect(
    host="localhost",
    user="root",
    password="yourpassword",
    database="company_db"
)

@app.route('/add_employee', methods=['POST'])
def add_employee():
    data = request.json
    cursor = db.cursor()
    query = """
        INSERT INTO employees (name, email, department, salary)
        VALUES (%s, %s, %s, %s)
    """
    values = (data['name'], data['email'], data['department'], data['salary'])
    cursor.execute(query, values)
    db.commit()
    return {"message": "Employee added successfully"}, 201

This creates a new employee record.

2. READ Operation (Retrieve Data)

SQL Query

SELECT * FROM employees;

Python Example

@app.route('/employees', methods=['GET'])
def get_employees():
    cursor = db.cursor(dictionary=True)
    cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM employees")
    result = cursor.fetchall()
    return {"employees": result}

This fetches all employee records.

3. UPDATE Operation (Modify Data)

SQL Query

UPDATE employees
SET salary = 75000.00
WHERE id = 1;

Python Example

@app.route('/update_employee/', methods=['PUT'])
def update_employee(id):
    data = request.json
    cursor = db.cursor()
    query = "UPDATE employees SET salary = %s WHERE id = %s"
    cursor.execute(query, (data['salary'], id))
    db.commit()
    return {"message": "Employee updated successfully"}

This updates an employee's salary.

4. DELETE Operation (Remove Data)

SQL Query

DELETE FROM employees
WHERE id = 1;

Python Example

@app.route('/delete_employee/', methods=['DELETE'])
def delete_employee(id):
    cursor = db.cursor()
    query = "DELETE FROM employees WHERE id = %s"
    cursor.execute(query, (id,))
    db.commit()
    return {"message": "Employee deleted successfully"}

This removes the employee record permanently.

Read Also- Java Object-Oriented Programming Concepts Explained with Examples

CRUD in REST APIs

In REST APIs, it is used to manage data efficiently by enabling Create, Read, Update and Delete operations that ensure seamless communication between clients and servers in web applications and services. In REST APIs, GET, PUT and DELETE are considered idempotent operations, meaning repeated requests produce the same result. POST is not idempotent because it creates new resources. Let me explain this to you with the help of an example: User Management REST API

Now imagine that you are building a simple REST API for managing users.

Base URL:

1. CREATE: Add a New User (POST)

We use the post method when you have to create a new user.

Request

POST /users
Content-Type: application/json

Body

{
  "name": "Nehal",
  "email": "nehal@example.com",
  "role": "Editor"
}

• The server stores this user in the database.

• It generates an ID.

• Returns the created user.

Response:

{
  "id": 101,
  "name": "Nehal",
  "email": "nehal@example.com",
  "role": "Editor"
}

2. READ: Get User Data (GET)

To retrieve user information, we use GET.

Get All Users

GET /users

Get a Specific User

GET /users/101

Response:

{
  "id": 101,
  "name": "Nehal",
  "email": "nehal@example.com",
  "role": "Editor"
}

GET is used only to fetch data (it does not modify anything).

3. UPDATE: Modify Existing User (PUT / PATCH)

PUT or PATCH is used when you want to update the user's details.

Difference:

• PUT: Replaces the whole object

• PATCH: Updates only specific fields

Example Using PATCH

PATCH /users/101
Content-Type: application/json

Body:

{
  "role": "Admin"
}

Response:

{
  "id": 101,
  "name": "Nehal",
  "email": "nehal@example.com",
  "role": "Admin"
}

Update modifies existing data.

4. DELETE: Remove User (DELETE)

To delete a user:

DELETE /users/101

Response:

{
  "message": "User deleted successfully"
}

Now the data is removed permanently.

What is Idempotency in REST APIs?

An operation is idempotent if calling it multiple times produces the same result as calling it once.

Example:

• Calling DELETE /users/101 once → user deleted
• Calling DELETE /users/101 again → user already gone, same result (idempotent)
• Calling POST /users twice with same data → creates TWO users (not idempotent)

Why does this matter?

When distributed systems and unreliable networks are use, there’s a chance that the same request may be sent multiple times without intending to do so. Documenting the characteristics of different types of requests helps avoid sending duplicate data created by those requests. This reduces potential bugs, and helps ensure data integrity through its unique identification.

Read Also- What is Abstraction in Java? Advantages, Types, and Examples

CRUD in Microservices Architecture

In microservices architecture, instead of building one big application (monolith), we break the system into small independent services. In many microservices architectures, an API Gateway is used to route client requests to the appropriate services. It also handles authentication, rate limiting, and monitoring. Let's understand it clearly with the help of an e-commerce system example:

User Service CRUD

Create User

POST /users

Request:

{
  "name": "Nehal",
  "email": "nehal@example.com"
}

Read User

GET /users/101

Update User

PUT /users/101

Delete User

DELETE /users/101

User Service handles everything related to users.

Order Service CRUD

It does NOT directly access the User database.

Instead, it may:

• Call User Service API

• Or store user_id reference only

Create Order

POST /orders

{
  "user_id": 101,
  "product_id": 5001,
  "quantity": 2
}

Order Service handles:

• Create order

• Fetch order

• Update order status

• Cancel order

How Services Communicate for CRUD?

There are 2 main ways:

• Synchronous Communication (REST API)

Service A calls Service B directly. For example: Order Service → calls → User Service API

• Asynchronous Communication (Event-Driven)

Using message brokers like Kafka and RabbitMQ. For example:

When an order is created → Order Service publishes an event:

OrderCreated

Simple CRUD Simulation (In-Memory Python Example)

Example: User Controller

# Simple CRUD simulation in Python

users = {}

# CREATE
def create_user(user_id, name):
    users[user_id] = name
    print("User created successfully!")

# READ
def get_user(user_id):
    return users.get(user_id, "User not found")

# UPDATE
def update_user(user_id, new_name):
    if user_id in users:
        users[user_id] = new_name
        print("User updated successfully!")
    else:
        print("User not found")

# DELETE
def delete_user(user_id):
    if user_id in users:
        del users[user_id]
        print("User deleted successfully!")
    else:
        print("User not found")


# Testing
create_user(1, "Nehal")
print(get_user(1))
update_user(1, "Nehal")
print(get_user(1))
delete_user(1)
print(get_user(1))

CRUD in Different Technologies

Different technologies handle creating, retrieving, updating, and deleting data in their own ways. Let me explain you how popular backend and frontend frameworks implement these operations and what makes each approach unique:

1. CRUD in Java (Spring Boot)

Spring Boot is used to build backend APIs.

How it works-

• Entity: Model (User class)

• Repository: Database operations

• Controller: API endpoints

For example:

Step 1: User Entity

import jakarta.persistence.*;

@Entity
public class User {

    @Id
    @GeneratedValue(strategy = GenerationType.IDENTITY)
    private Long id;
    private String name;

    // getters and setters
}

Step 2: Repository

import org.springframework.data.jpa.repository.JpaRepository;

public interface UserRepository extends JpaRepository {
}

Step 3: Controller

import org.springframework.web.bind.annotation.*;
import java.util.List;

@RestController
@RequestMapping("/users")
public class UserController {

    private final UserRepository repo;

    public UserController(UserRepository repo) {
        this.repo = repo;
    }

    @PostMapping
    public User create(@RequestBody User user) {
        return repo.save(user);
    }

    @GetMapping
    public List read() {
        return repo.findAll();
    }

    @PutMapping("/{id}")
    public User update(@PathVariable Long id, @RequestBody User user) {
        user.setId(id);
        return repo.save(user);
    }

    @DeleteMapping("/{id}")
    public void delete(@PathVariable Long id) {
        repo.deleteById(id);
    }
}

2. CRUD in Python (Django / Flask)

• Django

Django has a built-in ORM.

Model (models.py)

from django.db import models

class User(models.Model):
    name = models.CharField(max_length=100)

View (views.py)

from django.http import JsonResponse
from .models import User
import json

def create_user(request):
    data = json.loads(request.body)
    user = User.objects.create(name=data['name'])
    return JsonResponse({"id": user.id, "name": user.name})

• Flask

from flask import Flask, request, jsonify

app = Flask(__name__)

users = []

@app.route('/users', methods=['POST'])
def create():
    data = request.json
    users.append(data)
    return jsonify(data)

@app.route('/users', methods=['GET'])
def read():
    return jsonify(users)

@app.route('/users/', methods=['PUT'])
def update(index):
    users[index] = request.json
    return jsonify(users[index])

@app.route('/users/', methods=['DELETE'])
def delete(index):
    users.pop(index)
    return jsonify({"message": "Deleted"})

if __name__ == '__main__':
    app.run(debug=True)

Run: python app.py

3. CRUD in Node.js (Express)

Install

npm init -y
npm install express

app.js

const express = require('express');
const app = express();

app.use(express.json());

let users = [];

app.post('/users', (req, res) => {
    users.push(req.body);
    res.json(req.body);
});

app.get('/users', (req, res) => {
    res.json(users);
});

app.put('/users/:id', (req, res) => {
    users[req.params.id] = req.body;
    res.json(req.body);
});

app.delete('/users/:id', (req, res) => {
    users.splice(req.params.id, 1);
    res.json({ message: "Deleted" });
});

app.listen(3000, () => console.log("Server running"));

Run:

node app.js

4. CRUD in PHP (Laravel)

Model

php artisan make:model User -m

Controller

php artisan make:controller UserController --resource

Laravel automatically generates CRUD methods:

• index()
• store()
• update()
• destroy()

5. CRUD in Frontend Frameworks (React / Angular)

Frontend does CRUD using API calls.

React:

import { useState } from 'react';

function App() {
  const [users, setUsers] = useState([]);

  const addUser = () => {
    setUsers([...users, { name: "John" }]);
  };

  return (
    <div>
      <button onClick={addUser}>Add User</button>
      {users.map((u, i) => <p key={i}>{u.name}</p>)}
    </div>
  );
}

export default App;

Angular:

Uses services to call APIs and HttpClient.

6. CRUD in MongoDB (NoSQL)

MongoDB uses collections and documents instead of tables and rows.

// CREATE
db.users.insertOne({ name: "Rahul", email: "rahul@example.com", role: "Editor" })

// READ — all users
db.users.find()

// READ — specific user
db.users.findOne({ name: "Rahul" })

// UPDATE
db.users.updateOne(
  { name: "Rahul" },
  { $set: { role: "Admin" } }
)

// DELETE
db.users.deleteOne({ name: "Rahul" })

Key Differences Across Technologies

Real-World Application of CRUD

This data-handling operation is the foundation of almost every modern application, from e-commerce websites to banking systems. Let's understand CRUD with real-world examples and code implementation using a simple Node.js + Express example.

1. E-commerce Website (Product Management)

In an e-commerce application, admins can add, update, and remove products, while customers can view listings, showcasing practical product management using backend technologies. Let's understand this with an example:

Think of an online store like Amazon.

CREATE (Add Product)

// Create Product (Node.js example)
app.post('/products', (req, res) => {
  const newProduct = {
    name: req.body.name,
    price: req.body.price
  };
  
  // Save to database (example)
  products.push(newProduct);
  
  res.send("Product Created Successfully");
});

READ (View Product)

// Read All Products
app.get('/products', (req, res) => {
  res.json(products);
});

UPDATE (Edit Product)

// Update Product
app.put('/products/:id', (req, res) => {
  const id = req.params.id;
  products[id].price = req.body.price;
  
  res.send("Product Updated Successfully");
});

DELETE (Remove Product)

// Delete Product
app.delete('/products/:id', (req, res) => {
  const id = req.params.id;
  products.splice(id, 1);
  
  res.send("Product Deleted Successfully");
});

2. Banking System Example

In banks it is used for opening accounts, checking balances, depositing money and closing accounts, illustrating secure and structured financial data management.

CREATE

Open a new bank account.

# Create Account
accounts = []

def create_account(name, balance):
    account = {"name": name, "balance": balance}
    accounts.append(account)
    print("Account Created")

READ

Check account balance.

# Read Account
def check_balance(index):
    print("Balance:", accounts[index]["balance"])

UPDATE

Deposit money.

# Update Account
def deposit(index, amount):
    accounts[index]["balance"] += amount
    print("Money Deposited")

DELETE

Close account.

# Delete Account
def close_account(index):
    accounts.pop(index)
    print("Account Closed")

3. Social Media Example

With its help, users can create posts, view content, edit their posts and delete them, demonstrating real time data interaction and content management.

CREATE

The user creates a post.

posts = []

def create_post(content):
    posts.append(content)
    print("Post Created")

READ

The user sees posts.

def view_posts():
    for post in posts:
        print(post)

UPDATE

The user edits a post.

def edit_post(index, new_content):
    posts[index] = new_content
    print("Post Updated")

DELETE

The user deletes a post.

def delete_post(index):
    posts.pop(index)
    print("Post Deleted")

4. SQL Version (MySQL Example)

It demonstrates how to create tables, insert records, retrieve data, update entries and delete rows using SQL queries in a structured relational database environment.

Assume we have a table:

CREATE TABLE users (
  id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
  name VARCHAR(100),
  email VARCHAR(100)
);

CREATE (Insert Data)

Add a new record into the table:

INSERT INTO users (name, email)
VALUES ('Nehal Sharma', 'nehal@example.com');

This inserts a new user into the database.

READ (Retrieve Data)

Fetch all records:

SELECT * FROM users;

Fetch specific columns:

SELECT name, email FROM users;

Fetch a specific user:

SELECT * FROM users WHERE id = 1;

UPDATE (Modify Data)

Update a user's email:

This changes the email of the user with ID 1.

UPDATE users
SET email = 'neha123@example.com'
WHERE id = 1;

DELETE (Remove Data)

Delete a specific user:

DELETE FROM users
WHERE id = 1;

Benefits of CRUD operations

Understanding and optimizing data management operations is important for database performance. As applications grow, it remains consistent, allowing for scalable database management across small to large scale systems.

• Standardization: CRUD provides a consistent framework for interacting with data, making it easier for developers to work across different platforms.

• Simplified development: CRUD defines clear actions for data manipulation, streamlining development and promoting efficiency.

• Improved maintainability: The standardized approach simplifies troubleshooting and updates, making systems easier to maintain.

• Enhanced user experience (UX): It allows users to create, read, update and delete data seamlessly, providing a satisfying experience. (Related reading: UX metrics.)

• Modularity & flexibility: CRUD-based applications enable modularity, allowing developers to modify parts without affecting the overall system.

• Scalability: Following its principles helps applications scale, optimizing performance and handling increased workloads.

CRUD and Database Locking

When several users do CRUD activities at once, databases lock the database to keep data safe from damage.

Exclusive Lock (Write Lock): This lock is applied to a row when it is being updated or deleted. While the lock is present, no other user can either read or write to that row.

Shared Lock (Read Lock): This lock is applied to a row when it is being read. Multiple users can read the row simultaneously.

A real-world scenario would be if 500 users on an e-commerce site simultaneously tried to purchase the last item in stock. If locking were not in place, two users could both read that "1 item left", both try to purchase it, and then the inventory would show -1 as remaining.

Using a transaction with a locking is the solution.

START TRANSACTION;
SELECT stock FROM products WHERE id = 1 FOR UPDATE; -- Exclusive lock
UPDATE products SET stock = stock - 1 WHERE id = 1;
COMMIT;

FOR UPDATE locks a particular row so that no other transactions can access that particular row until the original transaction completes.

What’s the implication for performance? There are too many concurrent locks in the database, which negatively impacts database speed and performance. Therefore, very large applications will utilize other means such as connection pooling, query optimization, or caching (i.e. Redis) in order to reduce their CRUD load on the database.

Common Mistakes in CRUD Implementation

Poor implementation can cause security risks, system crashes or incorrect information in the database. Knowing the common errors early helps in building safer and more reliable software systems:

1. Not Validating User Input

Taking user input directly and storing it in the database without checking it.

Bad Example:

name = request.form['name']
age = request.form['age']

cursor.execute("INSERT INTO users (name, age) VALUES (%s, %s)", (name, age))

Correct Way:

name = request.form['name']
age = request.form['age']

if not name:
    return "Name is required"

if not age.isdigit():
    return "Age must be a number"

cursor.execute("INSERT INTO users (name, age) VALUES (%s, %s)", (name, int(age)))

You should validate before Create or Update.

2. Not Using Prepared Statements (SQL Injection Risk)

Writing SQL queries using string concatenation.

Example malicious input:

' OR '1'='1

Bad Example:

query = "SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = '" + username + "'"
cursor.execute(query)

Correct Way:

cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = %s", (username,))

Prepared statements protect your database.

3. Not Handling Errors Properly

You should never ignore database errors. For that always use exception handling.

Bad Example:

cursor.execute("DELETE FROM users WHERE id = %s", (user_id,))

Correct Way:

try:
    cursor.execute("DELETE FROM users WHERE id = %s", (user_id,))
    db.commit()
except Exception as e:
    db.rollback()
    print("Error:", e)

4. Not Using Transactions for Multiple Operations

Running multiple queries without transaction control.

Bad Example:

cursor.execute("UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - 100 WHERE id = 1")
cursor.execute("UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance + 100 WHERE id = 2")

Correct Way:

try:
    db.begin()
    cursor.execute("UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - 100 WHERE id = 1")
    cursor.execute("UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance + 100 WHERE id = 2")
    db.commit()
except:
    db.rollback()

5. Not Implementing Proper Authorization

You should always verify ownership before Update or Delete.

Bad Example:

cursor.execute("DELETE FROM posts WHERE id = %s", (post_id,))

Correct Way:

cursor.execute(
    "DELETE FROM posts WHERE id = %s AND user_id = %s",
    (post_id, logged_in_user_id)
)

Best Practices for Secure CRUD

Securing Database operations is critical because cyberattacks target these data interactions. Following are the best practices that you can apply for the same:

1. Authentication

Ensure that only verified users can access the system. For example, if a user wants to update their profile then they must:

• Log in

• Provide a valid token/session

Without the authentication, anyone can modify user data.

2. Authorization

Restrict actions based on user roles. For example, in an e-commerce app:

• Admin: Can delete products

• Seller: Can update their own products

• Customer: Can only read products

if (user.role !== "admin") {
   return res.status(403).send("Access Denied");
}

3. Input Validation & Sanitization

Never trust user input. Example:

Unsafe query:

If userInput = ' OR 1=1 --

It returns all users.

SELECT * FROM users WHERE email = '${userInput}'

Safe version (Parameterized Query):

SELECT * FROM users WHERE email = ?

4. Use Prepared Statements / ORM

Always use parameterized queries or ORM tools. Example:

User.findOne({ where: { email: userInput } })

5. Secure Data Transmission

Use HTTPS (SSL/TLS encryption). Example:

Wrong way: http://example.com

Right way: https://example.com

6. Logging & Monitoring

Track important CRUD activities.

For example: If 10 failed delete attempts happen in 1 minute then it will trigger alert.

7. Data Encryption (At Rest & In Transit)

Encrypt sensitive data. Example:

Store:

$2b$10$Jk9...

Instead of:

mypassword123

8. Soft Deletes Instead of Hard Deletes

Hard Delete permanently removes the record from the database. Once deleted, the data cannot be recovered.

Soft Delete marks the record as deleted using a flag or timestamp but keeps it in the database.

Real-world example: In a payroll system, when an employee leaves the company, you should NOT hard delete their record. Salary history, tax records, and past transactions must still be accessible for compliance and auditing.

Hard Delete:

DELETE FROM employees WHERE id = 5;
-- Record gone forever

Soft Delete:

UPDATE employees
SET is_deleted = 1, deleted_at = CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
WHERE id = 5;
-- Record stays, just hidden from normal queries

When reading data, filter out soft-deleted records:

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE is_deleted = 0;

CRUD vs REST vs GraphQL: Key Differences

When building websites or apps, developers use different methods to manage and exchange data. CRUD, REST and GraphQL are common approaches, with a different purpose and working style.

CRUD Using ORM vs Raw SQL

Developers can implement CRUD operations either by writing raw SQL queries directly or by using an ORM (Object Relational Mapping) tool. Both approaches allow applications to create, retrieve, update and delete data from a database, but they differ in how developers interact with the database layer.

Raw SQL involves writing direct database queries using languages like SQL. This gives developers full control over how data is queried, filtered and manipulated. On the other hand, ORM tools provide a higher level of abstraction where database tables are mapped to objects in programming languages such as Python, Java or Node.js. Instead of writing SQL statements, developers interact with objects and methods.

Modern web frameworks such as Django, Spring Boot and Laravel commonly use ORM tools because they simplify development and reduce the chances of SQL errors. However, raw SQL is still useful when developers need highly optimized queries or advanced database control.

Example Using Raw SQL

When using raw SQL, developers directly write queries to perform CRUD operations on the database.

Create (Insert Data)

INSERT INTO users (name, email) VALUES ('Rahul Sharma', 'rahul@example.com'); 

Read (Retrieve Data)

SELECT * FROM users WHERE id = 1;

Update (Modify Data)

UPDATE users SET email = 'rahul123@example.com' WHERE id = 1;

Delete (Remove Data)

DELETE FROM users WHERE id = 1;

Using raw SQL gives developers full control over queries, performance tuning and database structure. However, it requires deeper knowledge of SQL syntax and careful handling to avoid security risks such as SQL injection.

Example Using ORM

ORM frameworks allow developers to perform CRUD operations using objects instead of writing SQL queries. The ORM automatically converts object operations into SQL statements in the background.

Example: Django ORM

Create

user = User.objects.create( name="Rahul Sharma", email="rahul@example.com" )

Read

user = User.objects.get(id=1)

Update

user.email = "rahul123@example.com" user.save()

Delete

user.delete()

ORM tools automatically generate SQL queries in the background, making development faster and reducing boilerplate code. They also improve security because most ORM frameworks use parameterized queries by default.

Raw SQL vs ORM Comparison

In real-world development, both approaches are often used together. Developers commonly use ORM for standard CRUD operations because it speeds up development, while raw SQL is used for complex queries or performance-critical database operations.

How to Test CRUD Operations

Often, CRUD tests utilize black-box testing; therefore, they take place from an end-user perspective by doing some actions (create, read, update, delete) and verifying there were correct updates made in the database without looking at any internal code. Test cases for each operation:

The CRUD functionality of most software applications is the basis for developing today’s applications because it allows for the effective creation (creating), retrieval (reading), modification (updating), and deletion (deleting) of data in stores (e.g., databases, APIs) that are distributed or not; all types of data stores (e.g., structured, unstructured), including both SQL and NoSQL databases, as well as various methods through which that data can be exchanged (e.g., via REST APIs and microservices).

Therefore, an understanding of these four operations will also help to understand other operational characteristics (e.g., security best practices, idempotency, and how to test). By using these concepts together, developing scalable and maintainable software systems that support the deployment of digital applications in multiple industries will be possible.